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Phrenology: A Pseudo-Science

Phrenology As a Cancer, my interactions with astrologists often come with statements regarding my attention, affection, or accusations of pure laziness. While the infatuation with astrology is not a recent craze, it does have a forefather in phrenology: a pseudo-science that had its own audience in the 19th and 20th Centuries. Phrenology is an obsolete science centered around the study of the shape of a person’s skull and its connection with mental faculties and traits. The practice was started by German doctor Franz Joseph Gall, who examined the heads of various people to ascertain distinctive features that would indicate characteristic traits such as friendliness, conscientiousness, and creativity.The above page uses known examples to provide visual aids to support phrenology's connection between skull shapes and traits.Dr. Gall was one of the first doctors to theorize that 27 specific regions of the brain (later phrenologists would add to this number) contained certain mental functions, giving a lecture in Vienna in 1802 he offended both local religious leaders and officials as it assumed an individual's moral character could be physically determined. Soon afterwards he began touring the German states with Johann Spurzheim, giving lectures on his findings with mixed reactions from his audience. Spurzheim split from Gall, reshaping ideas about phrenology, before Gall died in France in 1828. In 1848 Jean-Pierre-Marie Flourens would largely discredit this movement among physiologists, but phrenology gained a foothold with the masses. Most notably, the movement combined with American views on race throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries as people used it to support claims of black inferiority to whites.In Wells’ New Descriptive Chart for Giving a Delineation of Character According to Phrenology and Physiognomy; For the Use of Practical Phrenologists by L.N. Fowler and Company, London in 1895, the publishers link a person’s character with the shape of certain portions of the head. These portions are split into 34 different groups linked to physiological and mental conditions that affect the examinee. In this case, the examinee was William Williamson, a South Dakota congressional representative in the 1920s, who was inspected on October 24th, 1901 by Mr. Morris. The first three pages provide a run-down of the 34 groups and what size (2-7) Williamson had for these regions. The fourth page outlines characteristics that the patient should look for in an appropriate partner including their weight, skull size, personality, etc. The fifth page of the book suggests jobs that the patient should pursue and how strongly suited they are to them. For Williamson, the examiner suggested jobs in the commercial, literary, or oratory field. I think most readers would recall taking tests in high school which ended with guidance counselors outlining career paths that the student should pursue based on their scores. In this case, one’s path is suggested based on their skull rather than a personality/intelligence test. The middle of the book is devoted to breaking down how the measurements reflect aspects of the individual’s character. For William Williamson in 1901, the results were quite glowing. The examiner noted him as being temperate, humble, and religious.One of these interesting characteristics can be seen on page 25, under “22.-Bibativeness" or a love for drinking water. Phrenology illustrates this hydrophilia to the patient's upper left side of the brain as seen in figure two. A large lump indicates a hydrophilic leaning that manifests in a love of swimming, bathing, and drinking. The pamphlet warns that this portion of the brain also correlates with alcoholism and advises the reader on restraining their impulses. The inverse of this enlargement indicates an aversion to water, avoiding it whenever possible with the pamphlet advising their reader to cultivate their instincts. Williamson was rated in the middle at a 5. Other characteristics include Spirituality, Combativeness, Individuality, and Hope.By the mid-20th Century, the practice of phrenology was largely dismissed by the public. The movement relied heavily on visual clues to judge mental characteristics and struggled to support itself in the face of physiologists who promoted more evidence-based sciences. While it's unknown why William Williamson chose to have a phrenology test done on himself (whether for the oddity of it or because he believed in it), the reader is left with an interesting pseudo-science pamphlet.Works Citied BRANSON, SUSAN. “Phrenology and the Science of Race in Antebellum America.” Early American Studies 15, no. 1 (2017): 164–93. https://www.jstor.org/stable/90000339. Wells’ New Descriptive Chart for Giving a Delineation of Character According to Phrenology and Physiognomy; For the Use of Practical Phrenologists London: L.N. Fowler and Company, 1895. William Williamson Papers, Richardson Collection, Archives and Special Collections, University Libraries, University of South Dakota. Abernethy, John. The Surgical and Physiological Works of John Abernethy ... From the 6th London Ed. Embracing Reflections on Gall and Spurzheim’s System of Physiognomy and Phrenology. London: Printed by Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme & Brown, 1825. Health Sciences Collection, Archives and Special Collections, University Libraries, University of South Dakota....

Honorary degrees at USD

USD commencement programs are a great source for names of people who have received honorary degrees from the University of South Dakota. These programs can be viewed in the Archives and Special Collections. 1985Dietrich, ErnstDoctor of Humane Letters1985Floyd, Joseph L.Doctor of Humane Letters1985Patterson, Samuel CDoctor of Humane Letters1986-SummerBridgeford, EthelDoctor of Humane Letters1986-SummerShepersky, A DuaneHonorary Master of Arts1987Solberg, Winton U.Doctor of Humane Letters1987-SummerSpies, JosephDoctor of Humane Letters1988-SummerCunningham, Marjorie JulianDoctor of Humane Letters1989Yellow Robe, RosebudDoctor of Humane Letters1989Gregg, John B.Doctor of Science1989Legvold, RobertDoctor of Laws1990Harris, John W.Doctor of Humane Letters1991Kent, Earle L.Doctor of Humane Letters1991O'Brien, PatDoctor of Laws1991Schwartz, A. TrumanDoctor of Science1993Manfred, Frederick F.Doctor of Letters and Literature1993Schaaf, Derek J. VanderDoctor of Laws1993-SummerYoung, Phillip T.Doctor of Humane Letters1993-SummerO'Brien, Daniel H.Doctor of Letters and Literature1994Colwell, RichardDoctor of Humane Letters1994Vidal, GoreDoctor of Letters and Literature1995Thompson, Charles M.Doctor of Laws1995Waitt, Theodore W.Doctor of Science1995-SummerRawlins, Marjorie T.Doctor of Humane Letters1995-WinterPascucci, Vito 1995-winterHillenbrand, William G. 1996Bode, Ken A.Doctor of Laws1996-SummerLin, Yung-ShiDoctor of Humane Letters1997-SummerCutler, Richard A.Doctor of Humane Letters1997-SummerHoutz, Jim HowardDoctor of Laws1998Morgan, Susan JaneDoctor of Humane Letters1998Odeen, Philip A.Doctor of Humane Letters1998-SummerTwo Hawk, Sr., WebsterDoctor of Laws2001-SummerWagner, Robert T.Doctor of Humane Letters2002Lohre, JohnDoctor of Humane Letters2002Swanson, Robert K.Doctor of Humane Letters2002-SummerZiolkowski, RuthDoctor of Humane Letters2004Doyle, James Michael 2006Weaver, James LloydDoctor of Humane Letters2006Williams, Robert NeffDoctor of Letters and Literature2006-SummerAman, Thomas E.Doctor of Humane Letters2007Sanford, T. DennyDoctor of Humane Letters2008McGovern, GeorgeDoctor of Public Service2008-WinterTrimble, Charles E.Doctor of Humane Letters2009Myers, Mary LynnDoctor of Public Service2009Myers, Shephen R.Doctor of Public Service2010Dexter, PeteDoctor of Letters and Literature2011Boritt, GaborDoctor of Humane Letters2014Seigenthaler, JohnDoctor of Humane Letters2015Gallagher, Thomas D.Doctor of Humane Letters2016Neuharth, JanDoctor of Humane Letters2017Hill, Pamela SmithDoctor of Humane Letters2018Abbott, James W.Doctor of Public Service2018Jewett, Harvey C.Doctor of Public Service2019Meierhenry, JudithDoctor of Laws2020none listed in program 2021none listed in program 2022none listed in program 2023none listed in program 2024Johnson, TimDoctor of Public Service2024Johnson, BarbDoctor of Public ServiceHonorary degrees before 1985 are not shown in the list above....

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Compensation Efforts For Messiah War Veterans

Financial struggles between the state and federal government are nothing new as both groups try to shift economic burdens onto the other but these struggles often left citizens in a bind, especially regarding volunteer pay. In the 19th Century, militias were often formed in response to periods of heightened tensions (perceived or real) between American settlers and their American Indian neighbors. States formed these militias and promised payment at the end of the conflict. This haphazard payment agreement often ran into difficulties regarding who owed the soldiers their pay and required meticulous records or militiamen would be given nothing for their service, which can be seen with the Ghost Dance War, or the Messiah War.Financial struggles between the state and federal government are nothing new as both groups try to shift economic burdens onto the other but these struggles often left citizens in a bind, especially regarding volunteer pay. In the 19th Century, militias were often formed in response to periods of heightened tensions (perceived or real) between American settlers and their American Indian neighbors. States formed these militias and promised payment at the end of the conflict. This haphazard payment agreement often ran into difficulties regarding who owed the soldiers their pay and required meticulous records or militiamen would be given nothing for their service, which can be seen with the Ghost Dance War, or the Messiah War.The Ghost Dance War sprang from attempts by Americans to assimilate American Indians into their culture by stifling attempts at self-expression, such as traditional dances. In 1882, US Secretary of the Interior Henry M. Teller issued the order to suppress the “heathenish dances.” However, secretly and sometimes openly, dances continued and waxed with the Ghost Dance in 1890. Wodziwob, a Paiute medicine man, started the Ghost Dance movement in 1869 around the communal circle dance before passing away in 1872. The movement became reshaped in 1889 by Wovoka, a Paiute Indian raised by Americans. Wovoka drew from Christian influences in his prophecies and encouraged the movement to spread to the Plains Indians. The Ghost Dancers believed that dead American Indians of the past would be resurrected alongside the restoration of their land and the American Indian’s way of life while the whites would be driven nonviolently from the land. Additionally, the practitioners believed that the dances, in which Indians would form a ring while holding hands and danced around a tree or pole, would hasten these events.[1] However, whites saw native dancing Additionally, the rhetoric of the Ghost Dancers alarmed settlers in the region, who believed that a war would occur. These dances were supervised by holy men, who offered prayers and sacred drinks for the practitioners. Additionally, a Sioux uprising in reaction to food shortages from a bad crop harvest and misappropriations by the government led to famine among the Sioux, bringing tensions to a boiling point. On November 13, 1890, President Harrison ordered the army into the Sioux Reservations to help uphold American orders, which quickly escalated into the “Ghost Dance War” or by the settler term, “Messiah War.” A more well-known occurrence of this war happened on December 28, 1890 at Wounded Knee Creek. There, army personnel opened fire on a village, which became known as the Wounded Knee Massacre.[2]South Dakota also participated in this war when Colonel M.H. Day and V.T. McGillicuddy, at the request of Governor A.C. Mellette, organized 110 volunteers into Company A of the Spring Creek Volunteers to patrol the Cheyenne River, opposite the Ghost Dancer camp, to keep American Indians away from deserted settler homes. Frank Stanton and J.B McCloud’s ranches served as the headquarters for the militia while a third headquarters was established at Buffalo Gap. Colonel Day assumed overall command with George C. Cosgrove elected captain, P.S. McClelland as 1st Lieutenant, and Roy Coats elected 2nd Lieutenant. These volunteers provided their own equipment and fought engagements at Dan Phinney’s ranch and Daly’s ranch from 1890 to 1891.[3] As U.S. troops arrived, some volunteers joined the army as scouts while Day assisted General Miles by helping to contain the American Indians south of the Cheyenne River. On January 15, 1891, Colonel Day dissolved Company A as the war drew to a close.In the aftermath of the war, J.B. McCloud and Fank Stanton both filed claims to the state ($2,926.40 and $2,937 respectively) for the company’s maintenance costs. The volunteers also called for their promised repayment, but Gov. Mellette denied the claims under the reasoning that, as the American Indians were wards of the federal government, it was their responsibility to compensate the volunteers.[4] However, the federal government denied the responsibility as Mellette had called the militias on his own accord and had set the promised pay. Only Stanton was able to obtain some reimbursement through the State Legislature. In 1928, Representative William Willaimson and Senator Peter Norbeck tried to secure compensation for the volunteers as calls were re-raised following efforts to pass the 1924 Bonus Bill for WWI soldiers. Williamson noted in a letter to J.E. Reddick of Belle Fourche that as the claims were 39 years old at the time, it would be difficult to secure payment, but the reality was worse. The Bureau of Pensions noted that there was no record of Company A with the South Dakota State Archives or at the War Department. A muster roll was furnished to the department, but it was a copy on foolscap[5] and had varying enlistment dates. However, the biggest issue centered around M.H. Day, who was never a commissioned colonel but was a civilian with the honorary title of Colonel. Moreover, there was no law calling for the establishment of a militia. Governor Mellette had raised the militias without going through the state legislature and the state had failed to present a bill of compensation to the federal legislature. This may have been due to a disagreement between the state and federal government as the compensation bill asked for $2 a day pay per man and $.40 a day per horse when other states just paid their militiamen $13 a month.[6]In 1929, Senator J.A. Boland of Pennington County proposed a resolution calling on the federal government to compensate the volunteers for their time, use of their horses, and maintenance while in service. His call was supported with evidence gathered by Peter Norbeck, Doane Robinson, and C.E. Feigel of Rapid City of a volunteer roster and statements made by Governor Mellette and Adjunct-General Carpenter in 1892 and 1893.[7] In his farewell address, Mellette noted that Day had drawn state money for the militia but failed to pay them, while Carpenter had kept a meticulous account of expenditures for the militias in 1890. However, the group ran into the same problems as they did in 1928. They could not locate the original roster of the 110 volunteers, only a copy of the original 51 men sworn in on Stanton’s ranch. The matter ended in 1940, when Senator Francis Case made a final push with Congress, furnishing correspondence between Days and military commanders like U.S. Army Major General Nelson A. Miles, Colonel Eugene Asa Carr, Lieutenant Colonel R.H. Offley and Major Harry C. Egbert, who all addressed M.H. Day as colonel. However, General Frank T. Hines of the Department of Veterans Affairs reluctantly dismissed the case as the volunteers were not on state or on federal payroll.[8]The difficulties the 1890 volunteers had in obtaining compensation reflect the economic and political difficulties of the time. Both South Dakota and the federal government were unwilling to foot these large expenditures and quickly passed the bill onto the other. The economic difficulties of the Great Depression in the 1930s added additional reasons to dodge the expense. Bad record management also took its toll as politicians had to fight for the repayment but failed to provide adequate proof to the federal government. These conditions led to the failure of any type of compensation for the militiamen as economic turmoil dwarfed any further efforts. [1] https://blogs.loc.gov/folklife/2017/11/james-mooney-recordings-ghost-dance-songs/[2] Warren, Louis S. “The Lakota Ghost Dance and the Massacre at Wounded Knee.” PBS, 4/16/2021.[3] Securing Relief for Messiah War Veterans, 1893 – 1932, William Williamson papers (MS 175), Richardson Collection, Archives and Special Collections, The University of South Dakota.[4] P.S. McClelland. N.d. William Williamson papers (MS 175), Richardson Collection, Archives and Special Collections, The University of South Dakota.[5] Foolscap paper started in mid-fifteenth century Europe and was known for its large size (smallest being 16.5” by 13.25” compared to the modern American paper size of 8.5” by 11”). The paper has a reputation of being cheap and of poor quality. https://regencyredingote.wordpress.com/2008/10/31/oh-foolish-foolscap/ [6] Letter from Commissioner of Pensions Winfield Scott to Adjunct-General W. A Hassle, 3/8/1928.[7] Boland, J.A. Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 1. N.d. William Williamson papers (MS 175), Richardson Collection, Archives and Special Collections, The University of South Dakota.[8] Securing Relief for Messiah War Veterans, 1893 – 1932, William Williamson papers (MS 175), Richardson Collection, Archives and Special Collections, The University of South Dakota....

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